Part 5 Book 2 Chapter 6 Future Progress
The excavation of the sewer of Paris has been no slight task. The last ten centuries have toiled at it without being able to bring it to a termination, any more than they have been able to finish Paris. The sewer, in fact, receives all the counter-shocks of the growth of Paris. Within the bosom of the earth, it is a sort of mysterious polyp with a thousand antennae, which expands below as the city expands above. Every time that the city cuts a street, the sewer stretches out an arm. The old monarchy had constructed only twenty-three thousand three hundred metres of sewers; that was where Paris stood in this respect on the first of January, 1806. Beginning with this epoch, of which we shall shortly speak, the work was usefully and energetically resumed and prosecuted; Napoleon built--the figures are curious--four thousand eight hundred and four metres; Louis XVIII., five thousand seven hundred and nine; Charles X., ten thousand eight hundred and thirty-six; Louis-Philippe, eighty-nine thousand and twenty; the Republic of 1848, twenty-three thousand three hundred and eighty-one; the present government, seventy thousand five hundred; in all, at the present time, two hundred and twenty-six thousand six hundred and ten metres; sixty leagues of sewers; the enormous entrails of Paris. An obscure ramification ever at work; a construction which is immense and ignored.
As the reader sees, the subterranean labyrinth of Paris is to-day more than ten times what it was at the beginning of the century. It is difficult to form any idea of all the perseverance and the efforts which have been required to bring this cess-pool to the point of relative perfection in which it now is. It was with great difficulty
that the ancient monarchical provostship and, during the last ten years of the eighteenth century, the revolutionary mayoralty, had succeeded in perforating the five leagues of sewer which existed previous to 1806. All sorts of obstacles hindered this operation, some peculiar to the soil, others inherent in the very prejudices of the laborious population of Paris. Paris is built upon a soil which is singularly rebellious to the pick, the hoe, the bore, and to human manipulation. There is nothing more difficult to pierce and to penetrate than the geological formation upon which is superposed the marvellous historical formation called Paris; as soon as work in any form whatsoever is begun and adventures upon this stretch of alluvium, subterranean resistances abound. There are liquid clays, springs, hard rocks, and those soft and deep quagmires which special science calls moutardes.[59] The pick advances laboriously through the calcareous layers alternating with very slender threads of clay, and schistose beds in plates incrusted with oyster-shells, the contemporaries of the pre-Adamite oceans. Sometimes a rivulet suddenly bursts through a vault that has been begun, and inundates the laborers; or a layer of marl is laid bare, and rolls down with the fury of a cataract, breaking the stoutest supporting beams like glass. Quite recently, at Villette, when it became necessary to pass the collecting sewer under the Saint-Martin canal without interrupting navigation or emptying the canal, a fissure appeared in the basin of the canal, water suddenly became abundant in the subterranean tunnel, which was beyond the power of the pumping engines; it was necessary to send a diver to explore the fissure which had been made in the narrow entrance of the grand basin, and it was not without great difficulty that it was stopped up. Elsewhere near the Seine, and even at a considerable distance from the river, as for instance, at Belleville, Grand-Rue and Lumiere Passage, quicksands are encountered in which one sticks fast, and in which a man sinks visibly. Add suffocation by miasmas, burial by slides, and sudden crumbling of the earth. Add the typhus, with which the workmen become slowly impregnated. In our own day, after having excavated the gallery of Clichy, with a banquette to receive the principal water-conduit of Ourcq, a piece of work which was executed in a trench ten metres deep; after having, in the midst of land-slides, and with the aid of excavations often putrid, and of shoring up, vaulted the Bievre from the Boulevard de l'Hopital, as far as the Seine; after having, in order to deliver Paris from the floods of Montmartre and in order to provide an outlet for that river-like pool nine hectares in extent, which crouched near the Barriere des Martyrs, after having, let us state, constructed the line of sewers from the Barriere Blanche to the road of Aubervilliers, in four months, working day and night, at a depth of eleven metres; after having--a thing heretofore unseen-- made a subterranean sewer in the Rue Barre-du-Bec, without a trench, six metres below the surface, the superintendent, Monnot, died. After having vaulted three thousand metres of sewer in all quarters of the city, from the Rue Traversiere-Saint-Antoine to the Rue de l'Ourcine, after having freed the Carrefour Censier-Mouffetard from inundations of rain by means of the branch of the Arbalete, after having built the Saint-Georges sewer, on rock and concrete in the fluid sands, after having directed the formidable lowering of the flooring of the vault timber in the Notre-Dame-de-Nazareth branch, Duleau the engineer died. There are no bulletins for such acts of bravery as these, which are more useful, nevertheless, than the brutal slaughter of the field of battle.
[59] Mustards.
The sewers of Paris in 1832 were far from being what they are to-day. Bruneseau had given the impulse, but the cholera was required to bring about the vast reconstruction which took place later on. It is surprising to say, for example, that in 1821, a part of the belt sewer, called the Grand Canal, as in Venice, still stood stagnating uncovered to the sky, in the Rue des Gourdes. It was only in 1821 that the city of Paris found in its pocket the two hundred and sixty-thousand eighty francs and six centimes required for covering this mass of filth. The three absorbing wells, of the Combat, the Cunette, and Saint-Mande, with their discharging mouths, their apparatus, their cesspools, and their depuratory branches, only date from 1836. The intestinal sewer of Paris has been made over anew, and, as we have said, it has been extended more than tenfold within the last quarter of a century.
Thirty years ago, at the epoch of the insurrection of the 5th and 6th of June, it was still, in many localities, nearly the same ancient sewer. A very great number of streets which are now convex were then sunken causeways. At the end of a slope, where the tributaries of a street or cross-roads ended, there were often to be seen large, square gratings with heavy bars, whose iron, polished by the footsteps of the throng, gleamed dangerous and slippery for vehicles, and caused horses to fall. The official language of the Roads and Bridges gave to these gratings the expressive name of Cassis.[60]
[60] From casser, to break: break-necks.
In 1832, in a number of streets, in the Rue de l'Etoile, the Rue Saint-Louis, the Rue du Temple, the Rue Vielle-duTemple, the Rue Notre-Dame de Nazareth, the Rue Folie-Mericourt, the Quai aux Fleurs, the Rue du Petit-Muse, the Rue du Normandie, the Rue Pont-Aux-Biches, the Rue des Marais, the Faubourg Saint-Martin, the Rue Notre Dame des-Victoires, the Faubourg Montmartre, the Rue Grange-Bateliere, in the Champs-Elysees, the Rue Jacob, the Rue de Tournon, the ancient gothic sewer still cynically displayed its maw. It consisted of enormous voids of stone catch-basins sometimes surrounded by stone posts, with monumental effrontery.
Paris in 1806 still had nearly the same sewers numerically as stated in 1663; five thousand three hundred fathoms. After Bruneseau, on the 1st of January, 1832, it had forty thousand three hundred metres. Between 1806 and 1831, there had been built, on an average, seven hundred and fifty metres annually, afterwards eight and even ten thousand metres of galleries were constructed every year, in masonry, of small stones, with hydraulic mortar which hardens under water, on a cement foundation. At two hundred francs the metre, the sixty leagues of Paris' sewers of the present day represent forty-eight millions.
In addition to the economic progress which we have indicated at the beginning, grave problems of public hygiene are connected with that immense question: the sewers of Paris.
Paris is the centre of two sheets, a sheet of water and a sheet of air. The sheet of water, lying at a tolerably great depth underground, but already sounded by two bores, is furnished by the layer of green clay situated between the chalk and the Jurassic lime-stone; this layer may be represented by a disk five and twenty leagues in circumference; a multitude of rivers and brooks ooze there; one drinks the Seine,the Marne, the Yonne, the Oise, the Aisne, the Cher, the Vienne and the Loire in a glass of water from the well of Grenelle. The sheet of water is healthy, it comes from heaven in the first place and next from the earth; the sheet of air is unhealthy, it comes from the sewer. All the miasms of the cess-pool are mingled with the breath of the city; hence this bad breath. The air taken from above a dung-heap, as has been scientifically proved, is purer than the air taken from above Paris. In a given time, with the aid of progress, mechanisms become perfected, and as light increases, the sheet of water will be employed to purify the sheet of air; that is to say, to wash the sewer. The reader knows, that by "washing the sewer" we mean: the restitution of the filth to the earth; the return to the soil of dung and of manure to the fields. Through this simple act, the entire social community will experience a diminution of misery and an augmentation of health. At the present hour, the radiation of diseases from Paris extends to fifty leagues around the Louvre, taken as the hub of this pestilential wheel.
We might say that, for ten centuries, the cess-pool has been the disease of Paris. The sewer is the blemish which Paris has in her blood. The popular instinct has never been deceived in it. The occupation of sewermen was formerly almost as perilous, and almost as repugnant to the people, as the occupation of knacker, which was so long held in horror and handed over to the executioner. High wages were necessary to induce a mason to disappear in that fetid mine; the ladder of the cess-pool cleaner hesitated to plunge into it; it was said, in proverbial form: "to descend into the sewer is to enter the grave;" and all sorts of hideous legends, as we have said, covered this colossal sink with terror; a dread sink-hole which bears the traces of the revolutions of the globe as of the revolutions of man, and where are to be found vestiges of all cataclysms from the shells of the Deluge to the rag of Marat.
挖掘巴黎的下水道并非是轻而易举的工程。过去十个世纪都在为它劳动而未能结束，如同未能完成巴黎的建筑一样。阴渠确实也受到巴黎扩展的影响。这是地下的一种黑暗的有无数触须的水蝗，城市在上面扩展，它就在下面长大。每逢城市开辟一条路，阴渠就长出一只手臂，在过去君主政体时期只建造了二万三千三百米阴沟，这是一八○六年一月一日巴黎的情况。从那时开始，我们不久还会谈到，工程曾有效地、坚决地被修复并继续下去；拿破仑建造了四千八百○四米，一个奇怪的数字；路易十八，五千七百○九米；查理十世，一万○八百三十六米；路易－菲力浦，八万九千○二十米；一八四八年的共和国，二万三千三百八十一米；目前的政府，七万○五百米；总共到目前为止是二十二万六千六百一十米，这是六十法里的阴渠，成了巴黎庞大的肚肠。黑暗中的分支工程一直在进行，规模宏大而不为人知。
正如我们所见，今日巴黎的地下迷宫，与这个世纪开始时相比已增加了十倍以上。人们很难想象，为使这条下水道达到现在相对完善的程度，必须作何种努力和具备何种坚韧不拔的精神。旧的君主制度的巴黎市政府和十八世纪最后十年的革命市政府好不容易才挖通了一八○六年就已存在的五法里的沟渠。各种障碍阻挡了这一工程，有的是因土壤的性质，有的是因巴黎劳动人民的成见。巴黎建筑在一块铲不动、锄不松、钻不进、人力不易解决的特殊矿床上。在这一地质结构上耸立着具有历史意义的称之为巴黎的奇妙构造，再没有比这一结构更难戳破和打通的了；不论以什么方式，工作一开始并冒险深入这冲积层后，地下的阻力就层出不穷。有稀粘土，有活水泉，有坚石，有软而深的淤泥棗科学的专门名词称之为芥末。十字镐费劲地凿进这一石灰石层，一层层很薄的粘土和一层层镶嵌着亚当时代以前的海中牡蛎壳的结晶片就交替出现了。有时一条河流忽然冲断刚开辟的拱顶，淹没了工人；或者忽然出现一股泥石流，它象一股狂暴的瀑布，象打碎玻璃那样，把最粗的支柱折断。最近，在费耶特，必须既不停航、也不抽干运河水，去把总管安在圣马尔丹运河下面。河床出现了裂口，水突然灌满地下工地，超出了水泵的抽水力，因此只得由一名潜水员去寻找大水池狭窄入口处的裂口，好不容易才把它堵住了。别处，在靠近塞纳河处，甚至在离河还相当远的地方，比如在贝尔维尔、在大道和吕尼埃通道上，人们遇到了能陷没人的无底流沙，在那儿，一个人眼看着就沉没下去。此外尚有令入窒息的腐烂气体、可能把人埋上的塌方、突然的地陷以及工人们慢慢感染上的斑疹伤寒。近来，在挖掘克利希街的地下长廊并用砌道来为乌尔克运河安装（这得在十米深的坑道里施工）一根主要的输水管之后；在顶着塌方挖掘，经常遇到腐烂层，并用支撑加固的情况下，从医院路直至塞纳河，在建成皮埃弗的拱顶之后；为使巴黎避免在蒙马特尔区急流成灾，并使这一有着九公顷之广的在殉教者街便门附近的滞水塘有条出路，人们不分昼夜，在地下十一米处修建了一条从布朗希便门到欧贝维利耶大路的沟道之后；在鸟喙小栅栏街，在不开沟的情况下，在六米深的地下棗真是前所未闻棗建成了一条地下沟管之后，工程指挥蒙诺就去世了。
在城市各处，从圣安东尼横街到鲁尔辛街建成了三千米阴沟之后；在利用弩弓街的支管把税吏街穆夫达街十字路口的雨水灾害排除之后；在用碎石块和混凝土在流沙上砌了路基、筑成了圣乔治街的沟管之后；在指挥了危险的纳泽尔圣母院街的支管的降低工程之后，杜罗工程师就去世了。这样勇敢的功绩竟没有一个公报，其实这比在战场上愚蠢的厮杀有益得多。
在一八三二年，巴黎的阴渠远不是今天这样的，勃吕纳梭曾积极建议，但一直等到发生霍乱，方始定下后来的巨大的重建工程。说来也怪，例如，在一八二一年，象在威尼斯一样，被称为大运河的阴沟的总渠，有一段污秽的滞水在酒葫芦街露天敞着。直到一八二三年，巴黎城才在口袋中找到了遮盖这污水所需的二十六万六千○八十法郎十生丁。战斗便门、古内特、圣芒代的三个排泄口，机械装置、排污水渗井和净化支管的吸水井，是到一八三六年方始出现的。巴黎的下水道，我们已经说过，二十五年来修建一新，并增加了十倍以上。
三十年前，在六月五日和六日起义时期，许多地方基本上还是老阴沟。大多数的街道，当时街心还开裂，现在已隆起了。人们常常在一条街或十字路口的斜坡的最低点看到大的方形粗铁栅栏，铁杠已被行人的脚底磨擦得发亮了，每当车辆经过，情况既滑又险，并使马失足。桥梁建筑正式的术语给这个低点和栅栏一个生动的名称“陷阱”①。一八三二年在无数街道上，明星街、圣路易街、大庙街、老人堂街、纳泽尔圣母院街、梅利古游乐场街、花堤、小麝香街、诺曼底街、牝鹿桥街、沼泽街、圣马尔丹郊区、胜利圣母院街、蒙马特尔郊区、船娘仓街、爱丽舍广场、雅各布街、图尔农街，老哥特式的污水坑，还是不害羞地张着它们的大嘴巴。这是船篷巨大的石缝，有时用界石围着，放肆到了极点。
①陷阱，原文为拉丁文Cassis。
一八○六年的巴黎沟渠基本上仍是一六六三年考察时的数字：五千三百二十八脱阿斯。在勃吕纳梭之后，一八三二年一月一日，是四万○三百米。从一八○六年到一八三一年，每年平均建造七百五十米；此后，每年在混凝土的地基上，用碎石搅拌水泥建造八千甚至一万米沟廊，造价是二百法郎一米，目前巴黎的六十法里阴渠共用去四千八百万法郎。
除去开始时我们指出的经济方面的进步之外，严重的公共卫生问题是和巴黎阴渠这一巨大问题有关的。
巴黎处在两层之间，一层水和一层空气。这层水聚集在相当深的地层下，这已为两次钻探所证明，这是由一层位于白垩和侏罗纪的石灰石之间的绿砂石所提供的，这片水可用一个圆盘来表示，半径是二十五法里，无数河流、小溪在那儿渗出。我们可在一杯格勒内尔井水中喝到塞纳、马恩、荣纳、瓦兹、埃纳、歇尔、维埃纳和卢瓦尔这些江河的水。这一片水是卫生的，它首先是由天而降，其次是由地下出来的。那层空气则不卫生，它是从沟渠中出来的。一切污水坑的腐烂气息都混在城市的呼吸中，由此而产生这股臭味。从一个粪草堆上取点空气，经过科学证实，比在巴黎上空取的空气还要纯洁，经过了一定的时间，进步起了作用，机械逐渐趋向完善，一切都明朗化了，我们可用这层水净化这层空气，这就是说要冲洗阴渠。我们知道，使阴渠清洁意味着把污泥归还土地，把粪肥送回土地，使肥料回田。这样一件简单的事，对公众来说，将会减少贫困和增进健康。目前，巴黎疾病已扩散到以卢浮宫为中心的方圆五法里地区。
我们可以说，十个世纪以来，污水坑是巴黎疾病的来源，阴沟是这个城市血液的病。在这方面人民的本能从来不会错。过去，修建阴沟的职业几乎和剥马皮卖肉的职业同样危险和使人厌恶，认为它很可怕，因此长期以来就推给刽子手去做。要使一个泥水工下到臭坑就必须付很高的工资，挖井工人犹豫着，不肯把梯子放进污坑里去，那时的俗话说：“下坑如进坟。”各种可怕的传说，我们已经谈过，使这个庞大的沟槽充满了恐怖，这个令人害怕的肮脏潮湿的地方有着地球的变化和人类革命的痕迹，我们可以在那儿找到一切天灾人祸的遗物，从洪水泛滥时期的贝壳一直到马拉的敝衣。